IN THE MATTER OF THE ST KITTS AND NEVIS DEFENCE FORCE

Dion E. Phillips PhD

As of 2000, four scholars (Browne1; Hagerty and Hornbeck; Browne2; Griffith) have looked at the St. Kitts and Nevis Defense Force (SKNDF). This article traces the establishment of the regular corps, and examines its structure, strength, and roles. The SKNDF is currently involved in combating drug trafficking and other criminal activity as well as other non-military roles. Under the Bradshaw-led Labor government, in 1967 the regular defense force was employed to maintain internal security and later to intimidate supporters of the Nevis secession movement. Though the matter of Nevis’ secession appears far from being settled, the Douglas-led Labor Party, which for the third time embodied the regular corps, has so far shown no indication that it will use the Defense Force to deter Nevis from seceding from the Federation.

The Pre-1967 Military

The Volunteer Ordinance (2 June 1886) established "without delay a force for internal defense." Riots in 1896 highlighted the need for such a force when workers at Needsmust Estate went on strike for higher wages. Rioters burnt sugar canes on estates, looted and burnt stores, many owned by Portuguese entrepreneurs. The police force proving ineffective, the marines (British) eventually quelled the disturbance. The Defense Force was formed to assist the police in case of any further crisis. By 1899, the Defense Force numbered 120 officers both mounted and on foot. To qualify for the force, one needed to be approved by the Governor and have an annual income of at least £50. Members were required to "parade under arms on all occasions of riot or of fire" and would be fined if they failed to do so. In April, an Ordinance "to regulate importation, sale and possession of arms and ammunition" was enacted as an additional step to prevent future unrest.

The Defense Force Ordinance of 1903 reduced the income requirement to £30 and expanded the role of the force to include responding to "invasion or war." Commanding officers had power to impress men, horses, mules, carriages and boats. If the force became fewer than 240, the Governor could effect the "compulsory services clauses" and conscript men between the ages of 17 and 40. Notwithstanding, one could pay a fee of £16 in lieu of service. Labor unrest came to a head in 1935 when to quell disturbances, the Defense Force was "ordered to open fire" and a British warship was called in to help restore law and order. Three persons were killed and nine injured, reportedly by shots from members of the reserve. According to Inniss in Whither Bound St. Kitts-Nevis (Probyn Inniss (Sir), Whither Bound St. Kitts-Nevis, St. John's, Antigua: Antigua Printing and Publishing, 1983), four years later, the 1939 Trade Union Act finally made it legal for workers to organize unions. The following year the Defense Force was again mobilized, but this time to protect strikebreakers. Kittians, Nevisians and Anguillans served in the Leeward Islands Battalion in platoons 4 and 5, and were on active service during the World Wars of 1914-18 and 1935-45. This included 50 young men from Anguilla who were recruited and put through their paces in foot patrol on a weekly basis. During World War II in particular, members of the force spent time at Fort Thomas, Brimstone Hill, and Bayfords scouting for ships and planes. They also performed duty at Frigate Bay where it was rumored that a German submarine would land to recharge its batteries. The last time that the Defense Force was mobilized before 1967 was during the strikes in 1947 and 1948. During the three-and-a-half-year existence of the West India Regiment, the military arm of the West Indies Regiment, twelve Kittitians served, though none emerged as officers.

Origin of the Regular Defense Force

The Associate statehood constitution led to the historic secession of Anguilla from the 3-island federation of St. Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla. The constitution called for the setting up of a local government in Anguilla before statehood on 27 February 1967. The Bradshaw Labor Party3 did not organize elections but opted to nominate a council. Anguilla rejected this proposal. The St. Kitts-headquartered central government imposed a solution by appointing an Advisory Board for Anguilla to be advised by Premier Bradshaw.

Anguilla's opposition to the decision of the Bradshaw regime, which it characterized as Kittitian colonialism, was even more strident in the behavior of the secessionists toward the police, the symbol of the Bradshaw government's authority on Anguilla. Table 1 highlights the chain of events that led to the establishment of the first regular army in the Leeward Islands in 1967.

Table 1 — Protests: A Catalyst for the Creation of the Regular Corps

4 February The police in Anguilla were fired upon several times. Chief of Police and Superintendent of Police were injured
4 March Government House was burnt flat to the ground. Acting Warden Hughes barely escaped with his life.
18 March Shots fired at Police Headquarters in the Valley, Anguilla’s capital.
23 March Labor government established a regular force to assist police.
25 March Shots, including rifle fire, were again fired at the Valley Police station
20 April Shots fired at Lloyd’s Hotel. David Lloyd,4 a member of the Labor Party was opposed to the objectives of the secession movement.
24 April Army’s creation was short-lived. It was disembodied when anti-government activity subsided.
27 May Shots fired again at Lloyd’s Hotel. Acting Warden had taken up temporary residence at hotel due to the destruction of Government House. This attack however prompted retaliation from the police.
29 May Expulsion of police. A group of about 200 Anguillians surrounded police headquarters; police arms and ammunition were seized and police asked to leave.5

The Labor government on St. Kitts responded by declaring a state of emergency throughout the three-islands to enable the government to deal with the situation on the island of Anguilla. Thus the regular force was embodied on 31 May 1967. The government justified this action on the grounds that the existing Defense Force comprised volunteers who were inadequately trained and poorly armed. This newly constituted force remained standing until September 1981 when it was disbanded by the Simmonds’ administration (See Internal Security below).

Dormancy and the Re-establishment of the Regular Force

The major political parties in St. Kitts and Nevis, namely, the Labor Party and the People Action Movement (PAM) have opposing views concerning the need for a defense force. Started by the Bradshaw-led Labor party in 1967, who saw the need of a force to assist the police, a regular force remained in power until he passed. After Premier Bradshaw's death on 23 May 1978, his deputy Paul Southwell replaced him. Although Dominican by birth, Southwell had been an active Kittitian and Nevisian politician since the 1940s. Before his death on 18 May 1979 and during his one-year term as Premier, Southwell retained the regular army as well as the reserve. This policy was continued during Lee Moore's premiership (1979-1980). But Moore seemed conscious of the mounting opposition to the military and did not allow a new intake of recruits. The opposition, which emanated mostly from PAM, claimed that the islands were too small for a defense force and that financial allocations given to it were wasted funds. PAM was of the opinion that an army was not needed rather the police force of over 400 should be strengthened to carry out needed duties which are clearly part of their job. Simmonds stated that "we can only see it as an intimidation army of the Labor Party." Leader of the Opposition, Hugh Heyliger, recalled times before Labor’s electoral defeat in the 1980 elections when the army was used "to intimidate and oppress people."

After PAM was elected to office in February 1980, its leader and the new premier of St. Kitts and Nevis Kennedy Simmons visited Springfield, the SKNDF headquarters. At that time, he stated that there would always be a defense force in the territory and that its personnel should have no fear of losing their jobs. Three weeks later, he, along with Simeon Daniel, Premier of Nevis and two others, visited the military detachment on Nevis and made a similar announcement.

Nevertheless, in relation to Nevis, 36 hours later, on 13 March 1980, Patrick Wallace, who at the time commanded the detachment on Nevis, received a telephone message from Regimental Sergeant Major Leroy Percival indicating that a decision had been made to close the Nevis detachment. Instructions were given to ship all military belongings to St. Kitts by police launch and that that which could not be taken should be stored at the Charlestown Police Station. When the soldiers were en route to St. Kitts, to be reassigned to Springfield, one of them, Ranger Monclair James, lost his life by drowning. Later, 12 to 15 soldiers from Springfield were sent to live at the Bassettere Fire Department and then moved to other police departments throughout St. Kitts and Nevis. Also, approximately ten police officers were sent to live in military barracks at Springfield.6 In due course, a meeting was held at Springfield to announce the fate of the regular force. Premier Kennedy Simmons, Attorney General Tapley Seaton, Commissioner of Police Stanley Franks and the Prime Minister’s Chief Secretary, Calvin Farrier attended the meeting. Those gathered were told that the government had decided to dissolve the regular force thus allowing its members four choices. Three of the four were to join the police force, the prison service or the civil service. The fourth was for its members to be paid off. They were further told a decision was expected in three months. Two weeks later, however, on 23 September 1981, the regular force was at an end.7

This decision appears to have been largely influenced by PAM’s perception of the close ties of the SKNDF to Bradshaw and the Labour Party.8 In so doing, it constrained PAM to seek to find loyal supporters to become part of the officer corps and to command the force but these efforts were fruitless.9 Vernon Fleming, a party activist, who claimed previous service in the British Army, was made a lieutenant in the force. In this vein, it has even been proffered that attempts were made to recruit St. Kitts nationals overseas who were believed to be supporters of PAM and who had served in foreign militaries to return and join the SKNDF.

After its demise, the vast majority of the ex-members of the defunct regular section either joined the police force, entered the local civil service or emigrated to St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, some of the latter joining the U.S. armed forces (Frank Mills, "Determinants and Consequences of the Migration Culture of St. Kitts-Nevis" in Patricia R. Pessar, When Borders Don't Divide: Labor Migration and Refugee Movement in the Americas, New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1988: 48). The weapons and equipment were transferred to the police with the semi-automatic weapons going to the police's Tactical Unit, later converted to the Special Service Unit. The head of the Unit at that time was Sgt. Felix Hodge (later Deputy Commissioner of Police). However, when the Labor Party led by Denzil Douglas was returned to power, the regular corps, after a 16-year hiatus, was reactivated on 1 June 1997.

At the apex of the SKNDF's structure is a 3-member policy making Defense Council which falls under the Ministry of National Security. The Council comprises the Minister of National Security (usually the Prime Minister, before that the Premier), the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs, and the Commander, SKNDF.

Only the Queen, through the Governor General, has the power to grant commissions and promotions. However, in practice, a three-member Commissions Board, starting in 1997, advises the Governor General through the minister responsible for defense. The board comprises of the Commander, SKNDF, who acts as chairperson, the chairman of the Public Service Commission and one other person appointed by the Defense Board for such period as the Defense Board may specify.

The government of St. Kitts and Nevis has no Defense Advisor to the United Kingdom, the United States or any other country for that matter. Regimental Headquarters handles matters pertaining to SKNDF personnel who are attending overseas training courses.

As shown in Figure 1, the SKNDF consists of Regimental Headquarters, "A" Company (a regular rifle platoon), "B" Company, a reserve rifle platoon, a Service and Support Platoon, a musical band, a coast guard (with both regular and reserve units) and the Cadet Corps.

Regimental Headquarters located at Camp Springfield, in Basseterre, the federation’s capital, serves as a central coordinating body for the various sub-units of the force and regulates the relationship between these units and external agencies. It is made up of the office of the Commander, officers' quarters, a canteen, headquarters of the Reserve Companies and a medical facility.

A Rifle Company (once referred to as Combat Group) is commanded by a captain and is composed of the company headquarters) and two rifle platoons. A lieutenant commands each platoon, comprising three rifle sections or squads of minimum strength, led by corporals. During the years 1970 to 1977, there was a detachment of 10 to 12 soldiers at Bath Village on the island of Nevis. Presently, there is no regular detachment of soldiers on that sister island.

The Reserve Corps of the SKNDF, which reports to the commander, comprises one Rifle Company, a band unit, a coast guard unit and a cadet corps.

The St. Kitts and Nevis Coast Guard is the maritime arm of the SKNDF. Up until 1997, part of the national police force, it is headquartered at the Old Factory Pier, Bird Rock, and has its own commander. The Coast Guard Commanding Officer who is responsible for its administration is supported by an executive officer that assists the former. Structurally, the Coast Guard is divided into three sub-units: a headquarters department, an engineering department and a flotilla department. The last consists of five vessels, including the Stalwart. Also, there is a reserve element. During the Bradshaw years, there were plans to start a maritime wing. Captains Errol Maynard and Donald Brooks co-authored a report to this effect, but their recommendations were never implemented. Brooks was a lawyer and member of the reserve section.

A warrant officer commands the Service and Support (S/S) Platoon. It is made up of cooks, office personnel, drivers, carpenters, mechanics and others. This very important unit includes an Agricultural Corps of 3 persons. Under the S/S is the armour troop. It previously consisted of three UK-made ferret scout cars, commanded by a staff serjeant. In September 1999, the force’s fleet was augmented when four pick-up trucks and one jeep was provided through Foreign Military Financing from the U.S. Department of Defence.

The St. Kitts and Nevis Defence Force Band was started in the early 1930s and is headed by a Director of Music.10 It has varied in size over the years, from a low of 15 to a high of 48. A sub-set of the Band is the Drum Corps, headed by a Drum Major.11

The SKNDF has responsibility for the St. Kitts Nevis Defense Force Cadet Corps which is composed of students from all of the secondary schools, including the Basseterre High School. The Cadet scheme, begun in 1917, is headed by a Lt./Officer Commanding, usually an officer of the SKNDF.12

It draws its members from the various high schools in the Federation. There are companies, each of varying strength, at seven schools in the 1970s, namely, Verchilds High School, Convent High School, Cayon High School, the Basseterre Junior High School, the Charlestown Secondary and Gingerland High School, the last two of the 7 on the neighboring island of Nevis.

Many members of both the regular and reserve corps of the SKNDF are former members of the cadet corps. Among the most notable are Errol Maynard, Scott Hendricks, Ian Hodge, Cornell Kelly and Patrick Wallace. Interestingly, Brigadier Carl Alfonsa, the eighth head of the Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force (and fourth Chief of Defence Staff), is a former member of the Cadet Corps at the St. Kitts Grammar School which he attended while his father was the Chief of Police of the local police force.

Recruitment

An individual is able to enlist in the SKNDF if he (or she) is between the ages of 18 and 35. Some minors, classified as "boys", have served in the reserve element, usually in the band as drummers. The applicant is required to complete an application which is obtained from Force Headquarters. Prior to selection, applicants have to produce a police certificate of character. (Enlistees are expected to have basic secondary education or technical training.) Also, a written examination is given by the Regimental Serjeant Major and a medical test is administered by the Regimental Medical Officer. Officers should have 5 CXC or GCE O’ levels. After an 12 week (sometimes spread over 16 weeks) infantry training course at Springfield, recruits are eligible to join the SKNDF either as a reserve or regular soldier. They sign on for a period of 12 years. In the existing reserve, members sign on for 6 years.

Manpower Strength

Prior to the establishment of the regular arm of the SKNDF, the reserve force was about 60 strong. However, with the creation of the regular, which numbered about 40, including men from both St. Kitts and Nevis, the SKNDF’s strength grew to 100. At its peak, the regular corps had grown to around 90. Its existence brought disapproval from certain sections of the population and from PAM. Its newspaper, The Democrat, carried the people's fight for years. Among the questions asked were: "What a small island like St. Kitts want army for?," Who the army is to fight against? and the predictable partisan conclusion, "Army is dangerous thing, you know, for they does take over governments when they ready" (Farrell, Osmond "Militarization of the Commonwealth Leeward Islands During the 1980s", Memo, undated and unpublished, 7). This criticism may have had some effect in view of the fact that when the regular corps was disbanded in 1981, it was about 55 in number. In 1997, the reserve corps, which remained in existence, had a strength of over 130 all ranks, distributed over 10 officers and other ranks. In May 2000, the overall size of the force was approximately two hundred, not including the Cadet Corps of approximately 119.

Women in the SKNDF

Before its demise in 1981, the SKNDF had plans to increase the number of women in its ranks. Private Mertrice Ephraim, a clerk in the Headquarters of the Combat Group, was the sole female member of the regular section of the SKNDF. Women were however enlisted in the reserve. In 1995, there were 15 females in the reserve section of which one, Lt. Emelda Isles, who as the ADC to the Prime Minister, was the only officer.13 In 2000, there were approximately 39 women, only one of which was an officer. This officer was Lt. Col. Elmelda Isles who served as the secretary to Major Wallace, head of the Coast Guard.

Training

In its formative years, recruits of the SKNDF received an 8-week basic infantry training course at Camp Springfield. Much of the initial training that was given to the 17 to 22 men that were selected in July 1967 to form the core of the St. Kitts and Nevis regular corps and was conducted by Geogrey Ellis, an ex-captain of the British Army's Queen Household Division. This training largely occurred during the months of August to November in 1967 and though the location has remained the same, the duration has increased. Additionally, local training was conducted by Captain Oscar Pollard, an engineer officer of the Guyana Defence Force. Captain Pollard also wrote the guidelines for the employment and the conduct of the force.

Between 1997 and 2000, there were three intakes, under the guidance of Training officer, Captain Leroy Percival. The first batch of 17 enlisted privates passed out on 23 January 1998. There have been as many as three pass-out parades a year and in December 1999, among the recruits in the pass-out parade in December 1999 were two former detainees of the Harris’ Home for Boys (Percival, Leroy "Overview of Training coursee for Defence Force Recruits", The Labour Spokesman, 18 December 1999: 14).

Soldiers attend a two-week annual training camp at Camp Springfield for the reserve corps during the month of August. During this period, they are exposed to live shooting as well as theoretical and practical music sessions. In 1998, assistance was provided by a musical instructor from the Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force. Since 1997, Trinidad has also trained eight soldiers, two of which attended the Senior Leaders Course. In 1999, the SKNDF benefited from the expertise of a U.S. Military Training Team.

Members of the SKNDF also received training in Guyana, the United Kingdom and Jamaica. In 1970, three years after the regular force was started, two individuals, namely, Errol Maynard and Scott Hendricks did the Standard Officer Cadet training course at the Officer Cadet Division of the Training Corps (from 1981 called the Colonel Ulric Pilgrim Officer Cadet School), Guyana Defence Force (GDF) in Guyana.14 Others who received training from the GDF were Leroy Percival (then called Leroy Herbert), Fredrick Gillard, P. Henry, S. Stewart, all of whom did the Section Commanders' Course. Also, Sgt. Henry Brown and Sgt. Roy Warner did the Drum Major course in 1987 in Guyana. Others who received training in Guyana included Simbert Augustus, William Hazel, Joseph Tuckett and Norman Williams, the last becoming the fifth Commander of the SKNDF.15 Guyana has also resumed training. Cornell Kelly completed the staff course and Derrick Fyfield did the Drill Course, both in 1997. With regard to Jamaica, Henis Farrell and Patrick Govia completed the Platoon Sergeant and Demolition courses, respectively, at Up Park Camp, Jamaica Defense Force. Alwyn Drakes, a Sergeant of the Jamaica Defense Force, was sent to St. Kitts to train the men who were to use and operate the armored cars.

Six individuals were sent to the United Kingdom to receive training. There were Errol Maynard, Patrick Wallace, Leroy Percival, Cornell Kelly, Derek Malone and Alfred Evanson. Also, annually, Grenadier Guards and Royal Marines from the United Kingdom visited St. Kitts for about two months at a time. Additionally, CDC Samual Walters and Staff Cor. Symburt Augustus received training in physical training in Trinidad from the Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force in 1978-79. The coast guard has received training under the auspices of the Regional Security System.

Assistance Provided by the SKNDF to Fellow Caribbean Countries

Three Caribbean countries have benefited from assistance given by the SKNDF. The SKNDF gave assistance to the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force (which was started on 1 September 1981) in 1979. Private Ivor Walker (now Major), and Lance Corporals Joseph Nicholls (now Warrant Officer, class two) and Samuel Howell completed the Training Soldiers Course at Springfield in St. Kitts.16 Also, personnel from Montserrat and Dominica completed a NCOs course in St. Kitts in 1978.

Roles

The St. Kitts and Nevis Defense Force performed five roles: internal security, prevention of drug and other illegal activity, provision of relief during natural and other disasters, self-support activities, assistance in the maintenance of essential services, and ceremonial duties.

Internal Security

A critical threat to internal security came when anti-Bradshaw sentiments mounted in Anguilla, police arms and ammunition were seized, and the police were asked to leave the island.17 (Hewlett 1, 12). Soon after, a party of armed men from Anguilla invaded St. Kitts on June 10, 1967. The plan was hatched by Ronald Webster, leader of Anguilla and purportedly supported by the opposition PAM leader, Billy Herbert.18 The invasion had two objectives. The first was to defend the revolt in Anguilla, commonly called the "Anguilla Revolution." It was felt that one way to defend was to attack, since the Anguillans expected Bradshaw to retaliate against their actions to secede. The second was to kidnap Bradshaw, overthrow his government and replace it with one that was sympathetic to the Anguillan cause.19

In response to this action, the SKNDF was deployed as a corollary to the state of emergency that was declared. In so doing, the army was immediately put to guard essential government services in St. Kitts such as Radio ZIZ, Bayfords, the telephone exchange, the Electricity Company and the reservoir at Laguerite, though no troops were sent to Anguilla. Bradshaw also started appealing to the British and Caribbean leaders to assist his government in order maintenance as well as to keep the 3-island federation together.

Using machine guns and rifles, the insurgents attacked police headquarters in Cayon, Basseterre; the Headquarters of the SKNDF at Springfield as well as the power station at Needsmust. One guard at Springfield was wounded in the process.20 The execution of the plans of the attackers went awry. The assault on the Defence Force Headquarters was thwarted by the efforts of Arthur Williams and Wingrove Archibald. Bradshaw, who declared a state of emergency, charged his opponents with "using murderous means to overthrow the government." He asked Britain and other Caribbean governments to assist him militarily to establish law and order.21 Guyana, under Forbes Burnham (as already shown in this publication) did later provide some training assistance, though not an invasion force when it was needed. Britain considered the events in Anguilla to be an internal matter and refused to become militarily involved until 1969, two years later, when it landed troops on Anguilla.22

Under the state of emergency, Anguillans and Kittians were arrested23 and the society as a whole was placed under heavy surveillance.24 However, efforts to prosecute the detainees were aborted by the government after the first two defendants were acquitted. And so, though there was by now a decline in the physical threat from Anguilla, Herbert and others gave accounts of harassment and mistreatment at the hands of the Labour government. As a case in point, in 1969, PAM's headquarters was purchased by the Labor government and its members are alleged to have been turned away by armed Defense Force personnel.

Also, after a bomb threat in 1967, supposedly by Nevisians, on board the MV Liamigua, the vessel that twice daily ferried passengers between St. Kitts and Nevis, members of the SKNDF, usually 2 or 3, served as armed guards. This came in response to a rumor that Nevisians were planning to take over the ferry by force.

Another example of its internal security role was the provision of protection for Premier Robert Bradshaw in 1967, after the attempted overthrow of his government. The Special Branch of the police routinely provided this protection. Sergeant George Robinson, a police officer, served for years as Bradshaw's personal escort. However, the SKNDFs Premier Guard, which was made up of about eight persons, carried out the night shift from 8:00 p.m. to 8:00 a.m. The Guard eventually provided Fortlands, the official residence of Premier Bradshaw, with full-time protection for about 3 or 4 months, after which the responsibility for Bradshaw's security reverted to the police.

After the expulsion of the St. Kitts police from Anguilla, followed by the unsuccessful attempt to overthrow his government, coupled with the bitterness which the Christina disaster engendered, Bradshaw, being the incurable federalist that he was, took the Nevisian secession threat seriously. Unlike previous years, when Bradshaw visited Nevis he made certain that armed bodyguards accompanied him. In fact, in response to demonstrations in 1977, led by Nevisian secessionists,25 including political activist Simeon Daniel (who later became Premier of Nevis) and Ural Swanson, reserves were sent to Nevis to provide reinforcement for the members of the regular corps. They provided reinforcement for the regular members of the SKNDF who were stationed close to Government House at Charlestown. As a complement of this, the military, during this period, made regular patrols and engaged in camping expeditions throughout Nevis. It is alleged that in the election campaign of February 1980, the army terrorized PAM constituency canvassers by pulling down election banners and posters. Observers also witnessed the menacing passage of army vehicles and gun toting soldiers through PAM public meetings. The army also participated in the transportation of ballot boxes from the polling stations to the counting stations, exclusive of PAM agents ("Tramp, Tramp, the Government Boots," The Democrat, 5 July, 1997: 1 and 11). Subsequent to the reestablishment of the regular corps, the SKNDF has notably been assisting the police. It took part in the massive search for Vincent Morris and Joan Walsh after they were missing and later found in the back of a car, hidden in a canefield. In July 1997, a large number of firearms and ammunition were discovered missing from the Armoury at the Springfield Camp — then under the control and supervision of the Special Services Unit of the Royal St. Christopher and Nevis Police Force. However, in November 1997, two of the missing firearms and some 152 rounds of ammunition (that also went missing) were recovered by a contingent of soldiers of the defence force (Labour Spokesman 1).

In 1998, the force was also called out to assist the police in the fight against crime. When a known criminal offender of Newton Ground destroyed low-income houses in that area at will, he was captured by soldiers and turned over to the police whom he had earlier evaded. SKNDF officers also serve as the Aide-de-camp to both the Governor General and the Prime Minister of St. Kitts and Nevis, respectively.

Prevention of Drug and other Illegal Activity

A high percentage of crimes are drug-related. Cannabis is the most popular illicit drug in St. Kitts and Nevis and the demand for cocaine is increasing; availability tends to rise and fall. Some drugs enter the twin-island federation through unguarded shorelines while others are grown in the mountainous areas where there is little or no security.

The insidious effect of proscribed drugs continues to permeate all levels of society and has demanded considerable effort and resources from the SKNDF. These efforts are carried out in concert with the drug squad of the national police (headed by Inspector Austin Lescott) in Divisions "A", "B" and "C", the last on the island of Nevis. Since the reestablishment of the force, both the army and coast guard elements have been combating the illegal drug trade. The SKNDF, on a regular basis, conducts operations in the mountains to suppress local marijuana cultivation.

In the first year of its reestablishment, the defence force seized 4,500 marijuana plants and 25 buckets of marijuana seedlings. In joint operations with the Drug Squad and the British Navy using a helicopter, some 8,000 additional marijuana plants were seized and destroyed.

On the 20th of May 1998, the defence force carried out a patrol in the Green Hill area, when they came upon a hut which was occupied by Curtis Warner and Dave Powell both of Upper Cayon. The hut was subsequently searched and a quantity of marijuana was found. Both men were handed over to Drug Squad.

In 1998, the U.S. Department of State received information that Charles Miller, a narcotics trafficker, had threatened to murder at random U.S. students of Ross Veterinary University in St. Kitts if the U.S. government was successful in obtaining his extradition. In a July 13 edition of Newsweek writer Brook Larmer claimed that Miller had "bought people in strategic positions from the airport to the police to the prime minister’s office." The article further stated that Miller, who is known as "Little Nut," openly helped to finance the 1995 election campaign of the Labor party — a charge the Prime Minister Douglas has denied (Lamar, Brook "He's One Tough Nut: A Fugitive in Paradise threatens Americans," Newsweek, 10 August 1998: 41). The St. Kitts government declined to accept a Clinton administration recommendation that U.S. law enforcement agents provide reinforcement to help protect U.S. citizens against reputed drug trafficker. Rather, the Douglas-government chose to use the defence force, along with the police, to ensure the security and well-being of the 250 students and 50 American faculty at the university, located at West Farm, Basseterre.26 Although the government had signed many treaties with the U.S., including a new Extradition Treaty, it balked at the U.S. request for Miller’s extradition. However, as the 2000 election approached and with drugs being very much a campaign issue, on Wednesday, February 10, 2000, following a joint police-military operation, Miller and others were arrested in Frigate Bay and charged with possession of ammunition and marijuana, with Miller being eventually extradited to the U.S.

In addition, to land patrol by the army, many along the coastal areas, the coast guard is also involved in drug interdiction at sea. As an example, in January 1999, in a joint operation with the customs department, a search was conducted by the coast guard on board the St. Vincentian registered vessel, Celia J, which plies between the Windward and Leeward Islands with fruits and vegetables. Over 9,761 grams (approx. 23 lbs) of marijuana estimated at a cost of $3,000 was discovered.

Provision of Relief during Natural and Other Disasters

On 1 August 1970, there occurred the tragic sinking of the inter-island ferry "Christina" which resulted in the loss of over 250 lives. While most of the population was in extreme shock occasioned by this traumatic event, the Defence Force sprung into action. The search for and retrieval of bodies helped to calm the relatives and friends of the deceased (Whitman Browne. The Christena Disaster in Retrospect, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands: St. Thomas Graphics, 1985: 57).

The military also provided relief during Hurricane David in 1979 and Hurricane Allen in 1980. As an example, it cleared trees in Pall Mall Square (now Independence Square) in 1979. On this occasion, Ranger Franklyn Roberts was severely injured when he fell to the ground. In addition, in 1979, four persons were recovered from a car as a result of a landslide which did extensive damage to the seawall along Old Road Bay.

Since the reestablishment of the regular force, it has assisted in recovery after Hurricane Georges, in October 1998, which left 2,500 persons homeless and killed five. Local efforts were complimented by a thirty man contingent of soldiers from the Jamaica Defence Force under the command of Captain Omri Chin (Labour Spokesman 19). In August 26, 1999, when Prime Minister Douglas addressed members of the SKNDF on parade at the end of their annual training camp at Springfield, according to the Labour Spokesman, he declared

There is now a strategic move toward having trained members of the force manage hurricane shelters prior and immediately after the passage of hurricanes. It is believed that this system will provide a higher level of safety and organization during and immediately after the event, and would help to reduce the level of stress in shelters under such demanding conditions. (3)

In this vein, soldiers, police, the Electric and Water Departments and essential services worked hand-in-hand as a result of flooding left in the wake of Hurricane Jose in October 1999.

The SKNDF is also providing increased assistance to the police. In March 1999, after the brutal murder of a St. Paul’s woman, Lorraine Dorset, a search team of police and defence force personnel found her body in a shallow grave at Mills Estate in Lower Bourryeau (Labour Spokesman 3).

Self-Support Activities

In 1973, the Agricultural Corps began cultivating ground provisions on "The Farm" at Springfield, the premises of the force's headquarters. These included cabbage, carrots, tomatoes and lettuce. These items were not only consumed by the force but the surplus was on occasion sold to the tourist industry, namely, to both the Fort Thomas and the Jack Tar hotels. Some products were also sold to the government-run Central Marketing Corporation, a pattern that persisted up to the time of the disbandment. In 1998, surplus vegetable produce from the defence force’s garden was donated to the Sir Joseph Nathaneil France Hospital, the St. Vincent DePaul Home, the Infirmary, the Children’s Home and the School Meals Program (Hobson, McClean "The St. Kitts and Nevis Defence Force is back on Track," The Labour Spokesman, 17 January 1998: 6).

Assistance in the Maintenance of Essential Services

In 1979, when there was a shortage of workers to harvest that year's sugar cane crop, soldiers worked for 2 to 3 months throughout St. Kitts. Such assistance was given from 5:30 a.m. in the morning until midday. Another occasion was the use of military personnel as telephone operators at the Government Telephone Company during the night shift on account of a labour shortage. In fact, in 1976, the military performed this task on a full-time basis for 3 to 4 months. In 1998, the defence force began working closely with the Harris’ Home for Boys.

Ceremonial Duties

Units of the SKNDF have performed ceremonial duties at intervals during any given year. These include the visit of Prince Charles in 1973; the state funeral of Premier Robert Bradshaw who died on 23 May 197827 and that of Premier Paul Southwell who died on 18 May 1979 as well as other state functions on both St. Kitts and Nevis, including Remembrance Day and the Queen's birthday.

The Band in particular performed at annual and other parades in several villages across the twin-island Federation and at Warner Park in St. Kitts. In fact, in order to fulfill the demand for the band, the Drum Corps very often functioned independently of the wind instruments.

In 1976, on the invitation of Governor Cyril King, the entire band (40 men) and two platoons (65 men) traveled to St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands on the MV Kiwi to take part in a parade for the 200th Bicentennial of the United States of America. In May 1999, the band performed at the Regimental Public Relations Weekend in the French overseas department of Martinique organized by the 33rd Regiment of the French army. This event was also saw the participation of the Trinidad and Tobago Defense Force Steel Band.

Conclusion

The regular section of the St. Kitts and Nevis Defence Force was started in 1967 on two different occasions. In the eyes of the Bradshaw administration, the creation of a regular force seemed justifiable because the police as well as the volunteers in the pre-existing defence force, who were deemed to be inadequately trained and poorly armed, were incapable of containing the unrest which was bent on breaking the union between St. Kitts, Nevis and Anguilla. The establishment of a regular force gave St. Kitts and Nevis the distinction of being the first Commonwealth Caribbean country in the Leeward Islands to institute a "regular core" of full time soldiers.31

Even after Anguilla's secession from St. Kitts and Nevis became a fait accomplit in 1969, in the ensuing years, personnel from the defence force and police were routinely employed by the Labor government to intimidate political opponents on both St. Kitts and Nevis in view of the growing support for PAM. In so doing, the security forces also served as a deterrent to the secession of Nevis. In contrast to Anguilla, the security forces, assisted by the geographical proximity of the two islands and the closer ties between them, was successful, along with other factors, at discouraging the secession of Nevis.

In addition to internal security, which appears to have been its main role, the SKNDF carried out ceremonial tasks, assisted the government and spearheaded relief efforts. In the case of the latter, the most memorable was the aftermath of the Christina disaster in 1970. Given Bradshaw's personalistic relationship with the SKNDF and the ensuing perception that it was largely controlled by the Labor party, when PAM assumed power in February 1980, efforts were made to find party loyalists to put in top positions in the force. However, when these failed the new government felt that, in the interest of its own political self-preservation, it was left with little choice and disbanded the regular force though it retained the reserve arm. After Kennedy Simmons, leader of PAM, served four terms as Premier and Prime Minister of St. Kitts and Nevis, equivalent to 15 years, the Labor Party, under the leadership of Denzil Douglas, was returned to power on 3 July 1995. Shortly thereafter, Labor revived the regular arm of the Defence Force which it established in 1967. The Defense Force has continued many of its non-military functions and has also become increasing involved in "policing," including the combating of drug and other illegal activity, thus leading to a blurring of the roles of the police and the military.

Footnotes

1 For a discussion on the military of St. Kitts and Nevis, see Whitman Browne, "Overt Militarism and Covert Politics in St. Kitts-Nevis," Paper Presented at Conference on Peace and Development in the Caribbean, Kingston, Jamaica, May 16-18, 1988. This paper appears as chapter seven of the conference volume, Conflict, Peace and Development in the Caribbean, edited by Jorge Rodriquez Beruff, J. Peter Figueroa and J. Edward Greene, London: Macmillan, 1991; 175-93.

2 Whitman Browne's From Commoner to King: Robert L. Bradshaw - Crusader for Dignity and Justice in the Caribbean Lanham, Maryland: United Press of America, 1992; Richard A. Haggerty and John F. Hornbeck, "St. Christopher and Nevis", in Sandra W. Meditz and Dennis M. Hanratty, eds. Islands of the Commonwealth Caribbean, Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress, 1989: 483-485; See Chapter 5, "Individual Security Measures in the Eastern Caribbean and Jamaica", Ivelaw Griffith The Quest for Security in the Caribbean New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1993: 129-130.

3 The St. Kitts Workers League, from which the St. Kitts and Nevis Labor Party has evolved, was started on 25 January 1925. The first president of the League was Thomas Manchester. The League all through the 1930s kept up the pressures for representative government and in the 1937 election, it fielded two candidates: Thomas Manchester and Edgar Challenger. Two other stalwarts of the labor movement were Joseph France and Robert Bradshaw. Both entered the Legislative Council in 1946.

4 David Lloyd once represented Anguilla in the Legislative Council in St. Kitts. He and Bradshaw represented the colony of St. Kitts, Nevis and Anguilla in the West Indies Federation in Trinidad; Colville L. Petty and Nat Hodge, Anguilla's Battle for Freedom, 1967, Petnat Publishing. 1987: 42-61.

5 The 18 policemen, including their officer-in-charge, Assistant Superintendent Charles Edgings, returned to St. Kitts.

6 It appears that the PAM government felt that it could trust the loyalty of the police more than that of the soldiers. Consequently, the mixing and reshuffling. Also, PAM, shortly after being sworn into office in 1980, replaced Acting Commissioner of Police Joseph Francis with Stanley V. Franks, who was thought to favor the Simmons administration.

7 Supporters of PAM contend that it had vowed to dissolve the regular arm of the defense force if elected to office in the February 1980 election and that its decision was a delivery of that promise.

8 This decision was also likely influenced by events in Dominica. In March 1981, ex-Prime Minister of Dominica Patrick John was arrested along with senior officers of the now disbanded Dominica Defense Force after the discovery of a plot to overthrow the Eugenia Charles administration.

9 In addition, on 20 August 1981, the Kennedy Simmons-led PAM, whose election to government still left Labour with a majority of seats in St. Kitts, claimed that it had information that the Labor party of ex-Premier Lee Moore was linked to a mercenary group in Georgia, USA, in a move to topple the St. Kitts-Nevis government. The allegation was refuted by Moore who said that his party had no interest in removing the PAM/NRP coalition government by force; "Plan to Topple St. Kitts Unity", Caribbean Contact, vol. 9, September 1991.

10 The following persons have served as Band masters: W. J. Butler, Edgar S. Bridgewater, Robert Manning, Alexis Knight, Alphonso Lewis, and Nigel Williams. Lt. Bridgewater, a Nevian, produced many of the finest musicians in the Federation. This is evidence by the existence of the Joseph Liburd Orchestra, Val Morris Orchestra, G.I. Brass (both with Calvin Esdaille and Eli Matt) and the Grand Masters with the Hick's brothers; "Edgar S. Bridgewater Dies", Labour Spokesman, no. 32, 4 September 1966: 1; WOI Ron E. Collins, "St. Kitts Nevis Defence Force Band and Its Genesis", St. Kitts Nevis Force Centennial Anniversary Magazine, 1896-1996: 18-19.

11 The following persons have served as Drum Majors: Alexis Knight, Alfred De La Coudray, Eustace Warner, Roy Warner, Henry Browne and Ron E. Collins.

12 As early as the 1890s, a Leeward Islands Cadet Organization (LICO) was formed to which St. Kitts was a member. However, the separation of the Federation resulted in the end of the LICO. In the case of St. Kitts, it started it own called the St. Kitts Grammar School Cadet Corps as cadets at the time were recruited from this school alone, the only high school on the island. There were no cadet corps on Nevis at the time as that island had no secondary school. In the late 1960s, the Cadet Corps became affiliated with the Defence Force; WO2 Watkins C. Hendrickson, "St. Kitts Nevis Cadet Corps: Its History & Relation to the St. Kitts Nevis Defence Force", St. Kitts Nevis Force Centennial Anniversary, 1896-1996: 33-37.

13In 1997, 2Lt. Romana E. Isles, who began her military career in 1982, was the force's Administrative Officer. She has the distinction of being the first female commissioned officer.

14Errol Maynard was one of six officers, the others were Guyanese, to be part of the first batch of cadet officers. They were commissioned in the presence of Forbes Burhnam, the then President of the Republic of Guyana; Lt. Col. G. Gomes, "The Officer Factory", Scarlet Beret: The Journal of the Guyana Defence Force, November 1995: 10-11.

15 In 2000, Lt. Col. Norman L. Williams was the longest serving member of the Defence Force. He began his career in the mid-1960s as a trumpeter in the band. He has received training in such areas as Commercial Fraud, Jungle Warfare, Internal Security Operations, Basic Demolition and illicit drugs.

16 This training, conducted by the Training Branch, SKNDF, was the Trained Soldiers Course, No. 2.

17 At one point during the 1950s, Anguillans humiliated the late Robert Bradshaw to the point where he threatened to "put bones in the rice and pepper in the sauce" of Anguillians. He also threatened to turn the 35-square mile island into a desert. Once when Bradshaw came to Anguilla to campaign for the Labor Party, a group of Anguillans stoned him.

18 PAM, under the leadership of William Herbert (Dr.), was formed in January 1965 and contested its first general election in July 1966. PAM won 1 seat in Nevis, 1 seat in Anguilla and none in St. Kitts. In its subsequent bid to gain political power, its failure at the ballot box in 1965 may have led it to see "the bullet" as an alternative. Kennedy Simmons (Dr.) later emerged as PAM's leader.

19 Webster notes in his book that "I also hoped to bring back Premier Bradshaw and his deputy Southwell, as hostages. That was the main purpose of the raid. They were suppose to link up with Dr. Herbert (who founded the PAM opposition in St. Kitts)" Ronald Webster, Scrap Book of Anguilla's Revolution, Seabreakers (Anguilla) Ltd, 1987: 21.

20 In addition, the Ass. Chief Engineer & Manager of the Electricity Department, Neville Hancock and a switchboard attendant, were fired upon, both of whom escaped unarmed. Shooting also took place in several sections of Basseterre until 5 o'clock, particularly in the Greenlands and Taylor's Range areas. Also, a fire completely burnt down the government premises on Main Street, Sandy Point, which housed the Sandy Point Post Office, Telephone Exchange, Court House and Public Library. Two private homes occupied by Mrs. Wilkes and Mr. Stanley Warner were burnt flat to the ground.

21 Four such contacts were Prime Minister Errol Barrow of Barbados; Prime Minister Hugh Shearer of Jamaica, Prime Minister Forbes Burnham of Guyana and Prime Minister Eric Williams of Trinidad and Tobago. The plan was for a peace-keeping team comprising members of these four Commonwealth Caribbean countries to be transported to Anguilla by U.K. naval ships. They were to be supported by military or naval forces if the Anguillans were to resist. Operation Dirty I never became a reality.

22 Operation Dirty II did become a reality. British troops landed and remained on Anguilla from March 1969 until 1972.

23 Some of the detainees are: Michael Morton, Cecil Warner, Samuel Philip, Calvin Farrier, Alwyn Lewis, Ashley Grant, Henry S. Charles, Joseph Sutton, William V. Herbert, George Fleming, James M. Gaskell, Valentine Smith, John Reynolds, Livingston Sadio, Cecil Roberts, Vernon Fleming, Geoffrey R. Boom, Terrance Henry and Courtenay Dickinson. Detention orders were also prepared for Michael Powell and Richard Caines. Powell later emerged as a Deputy Prime Minister in a PAM administration.

24 To supplement the work of the SKNDF, and in hopes of speeding up a return to normalcy, the Royal St. Christopher and Nevis Police Force was augmented with the establishment of a special constabulary headed by Edgar S. Bridgewater, with William Dore serving as the Second-in-command. This constabulary performed guard duty every evening at the residences of several senior civil servants, members of the judiciary, Ministers of the Crown and at risk government buildings including schools for well over a year; William F. Dore, Speech Given on the Anniversary of 100 Years of the Defence Force, unpublished, 1997.

25 Since the 1950s, Nevisians have visited the secession issue on a number of occasions. In the 1960s, it was Eugene Walwyn and Wilmont Nicholls. In the 1970s, it was Simeon Daniel, Ivor Stevens and Ural Swanston and in 1997 it was again Daniel as well as Vance Amory, Malcolm Guishard and Leonard Small.

26 This defense policy is in contrast to that of Simmonds who invited troops from the Regional Security System on 12 November, 1994, after 18 prisoners broke out of Her Majesty’s Prison in St. Kitts following full-scale rioting. The previous year, in the 1993 elections, as a result of an electoral crisis RSS troops were on stand-by in Antigua.

27 Bradshaw, who passed at 61 years of age, was an advocate of West Indies integration. He served as the Finance Minister of the West Indies Federation, 1958-62. Tom Adams, the then Prime Minister of Barbados, sent his mother and the widow of the defunct federation’s first and only Prime Minister, as Barbados’ official representative to his funeral. Michael Manley, whose father Norman Manley, lost the referendum and took Jamaica out of the federation, also attended. So too did Guyana’s Forbes Burnham who shared Bradshaw’s passion for regional unity; "Let the Bradshaw spirit live… ." Caribbean Contact, June 1998; S.B. Jones-Hendrickson, "Strategies for Progress in Post-Independent Caribbean: A Bradshawaian Synthesis", 1984.

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